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\maketitle
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\section{Star-based WSNs}\label{sec:star_based_wsns}
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\section*{Introduction:}\label{sec:introduction}
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Singapore, a frontrunner in sustainable urban development, grapples with a crucial data gap: the lack of a dedicated Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) to monitor CO\textsubscript{2} emissions and their intricate link to temperature fluctuations across diverse urban environments. This absence of comprehensive data impedes our ability to accurately track progress towards ambitious environmental targets and formulate informed policies for critical issues like CO\textsubscript{2} reduction and urban heat island mitigation.
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Monitoring environmental conditions like air quality or wildfire risk is crucial, and Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) offer a promising solution. But designing efficient and reliable WSNs presents challenges, particularly in balancing low-power consumption with robust data transmission – a key concern in the realm of Internet of Things (IoT) \cite{hemanand_enabling_2021}.
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\section*{Problem Statement}\label{sec:problem_statement}
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This project tackles this pressing challenge by proposing the development and deployment of a scalable and energy-efficient mesh network utilizing LoRa and ESP-Now protocols in Nanyang Polytechnic (NYP) Campus. Through this network, we aim to collect and analyze real-time CO\textsubscript{2} and temperature data, enabling us to achieve three key objectives:
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Star-based Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) have emerged as a popular approach for environmental monitoring, exemplified by Lazarescu et al.'s wildfire detection system \cite{lazarescu_design_2013}. These networks resemble constellations, with individual sensor nodes dispersed like stars and transmitting data to a central gateway node, analogous to a central star. This architecture prioritizes reliable communication, particularly crucial in scenarios like wildfire detection, by utilizing dedicated radio channels within the unlicensed Industrial, Scientific, and Medical (ISM) band \cite{shah_iot-enabled_2020}. The central gateway node acts as a hub, collecting and buffering data from all sensors before forwarding it to a remote server via the internet.
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\begin{itemize}
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\item Establish robust correlations between these environmental factors,
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\item Evaluate the performance and suitability of LoRa and ESP-Now protocols compared to established mesh algorithms, and
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\item Deliver valuable insights to policymakers and stakeholders, empowering them to develop data-driven strategies for a more sustainable urban future.
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\end{itemize}
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Building upon this concept, Shah et al. crafted a similar system, but with sensors directly tethered to a computer through a dedicated transceiver pair \cite{shah_iot-enabled_2020}. This setup streamlines data visualization and sharing, but lacks the centralized structure of its predecessor. Interestingly, star topologies have even ventured into the realm of long-range communication, utilizing technologies like 2G/GSM to shine their light over wider areas \cite{CVZZ16}.
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By addressing this data gap and providing actionable insights, this project aspires to contribute significantly to Singapore's journey towards environmental sustainability.
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While Star-based WSNs shine in terms of simplicity and ease of deployment, they face limitations. Scaling them up for wider coverage can be challenging \cite{Boukerche2018Connectivity}. Additionally, research by Shrestha et al. suggests that Mesh networks, with their interconnected nodes and redundant data paths, may offer superior reliability, especially when individual nodes fail \cite{shrestha_performance_2007}.
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\subsection*{Focus Areas}\label{sec:focus_areas}
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We will focus on key factors like:
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\begin{itemize}
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\item \textbf{Data latency and reliability:} Ensure timely and accurate transmission of environmental data.
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\item \textbf{Network scalability and reach:} Ability to handle a large number of nodes and cover the desired area effectively.
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\item \textbf{Energy efficiency:} Minimize power consumption of sensor nodes for extended lifespan and network sustainability.
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\item \textbf{Cost-effectiveness:} Consider hardware, deployment, and operational costs for a sustainable solution.
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\end{itemize}
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Therefore, choosing the right WSN topology for environmental monitoring requires careful consideration. Simplicity and ease of deployment offered by Star networks might be ideal for smaller, controlled environments \cite{Alippi2011A}. However, for expansive or critical monitoring applications, the enhanced reliability of Mesh networks may be the brighter star to follow \cite{Han2011Reliable}.
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\newpage
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\section{Literature Review}\label{sec:lit_review}
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The Minimum Spanning Tree (MST) is a potential routing protocol for mesh-based Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN). Algorithms like Prim's \cite{cormen_introduction_2009} and Kruskal's \cite{kruskal_shortest_1956} have attacted implementations in applications since they are simple to implement and effective in static networks, However, their direct application to Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) remains questionable.
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% The Minimum Spanning Tree (MST) algorithms, exemplified by Prim's \cite{cormen_introduction_2009} and Kruskal's \cite{kruskal_shortest_1956}, have gained renown for their simplicity and effectiveness in structuring static mesh networks. However, their direct application in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) necessitates further investigation.
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Recent research endeavors have delved into the potential of MSTs to enhance energy efficiency within WSN routing protocols. For instance, MSTEAM leverages localized MSTs to facilitate multicast routing, thereby minimizing energy consumption during message propagation \cite{frey_localized_2007}. Similarly, NNT offers a distributed approach to construct approximate MSTs, effectively reducing communication overhead \cite{4492767}. Additionally, CMSTR addresses the challenge of imbalanced energy consumption in hierarchical routing by employing constrained MSTs to establish energy-efficient intra-cluster communication paths \cite{lin_cmstr_2023}. These advancements highlight the promise of MST-based strategies in promoting energy-aware routing within WSNs, especially in CO2 monitoring applications and specific deployment scenarios.
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There is necessity for each node to compute shortest paths to all others significantly escalates complexity and energy consumption. Moreover, the static nature of MSTs requires recalculations upon network alterations, potentially causing delays and packet loss. In complex environments, MSTs may not always ensure the most energy-efficient paths, further complicating their practical utility.
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Nevertheless, MSTs offer inherent advantages such as simplicity, scalability, and fault tolerance, making them worth exploring. A potential solution could adopt a reactive approach, where the sink node initiates data collection through controlled broadcasts or multicasts. Subsequently, leaf nodes transmit data along pre-computed, energy-efficient paths towards the sink, facilitated by intermediate nodes. This reactive paradigm appears promising for static WSN deployments, providing a balance between simplicity and efficiency.
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In conclusion, while MSTs exhibit limitations in certain WSN scenarios, their adaptability and potential for energy-efficient routing make them a compelling area for further investigation, particularly in CO2 monitoring applications. Future research should focus on refining MST-based strategies to address the dynamic nature of WSNs and optimize energy consumption under varying deployment conditions.
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% In the case of WSNs, there must be an optimal tree building algorithm for routing packets of data from point to point in a mesh network. Since the introduction of the abovementioned algorithms, there has since been an evolution of those ideas built for low powered networks like WSNs, they include MSTEAM \cite{frey_localized_2007}, NNT \cite{4492767} and CSMTR \cite{lin_cmstr_2023}.
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% These algorithms were devleoped for one purpose ---to reduce the energy required during building of the graph at each node when there is a change in the topology (new node joins or node dies).
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% Traditionally, MSTs connect to all nodes, akin to a mesh topology, this would allow nodes to calculate the weights from each vertice connected to itself and thereby calculating the shortest or optimal path from node to node.
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% A key pitfall is the static nature of MSTs. A change in the network would require recalculations, leading to potential delay and packet loss, thereby affecting the efficiency of the data transmission. Additionally, MSTs may not always provide the most optimal path, especially in complex environments.
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% A potential proof of concept of this algorithm could feature a reactive system, where the sink node would initiate a request for data collection either through broadcast or multicast via their nearest neighbour. Each leaf node would then unicast their data packets through an optimal path that would have been pre-calculated, and the data will then be forwarded through the optimal paths of the subsequent nodes. In a WSN where nodes would be deployed in a static environment, this solution would a viable choice.
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% Monitoring environmental conditions like air quality or wildfire risk is crucial, and Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) offer a promising solution. But designing efficient and reliable WSNs presents challenges, particularly in balancing low-power consumption with robust data transmission – a key concern in the realm of Internet of Things (IoT) \cite{hemanand_enabling_2021}.
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% Star-based Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) have emerged as a popular approach for environmental monitoring, exemplified by Lazarescu et al.'s wildfire detection system \cite{lazarescu_design_2013}. These networks resemble constellations, with individual sensor nodes dispersed like stars and transmitting data to a central gateway node, analogous to a central star. This architecture prioritizes reliable communication, particularly crucial in scenarios like wildfire detection, by utilizing dedicated radio channels within the unlicensed Industrial, Scientific, and Medical (ISM) band \cite{shah_iot-enabled_2020}. The central gateway node acts as a hub, collecting and buffering data from all sensors before forwarding it to a remote server via the internet.
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% Building upon this concept, Shah et al. crafted a similar system, but with sensors directly tethered to a computer through a dedicated transceiver pair \cite{shah_iot-enabled_2020}. This setup streamlines data visualization and sharing, but lacks the centralized structure of its predecessor. Interestingly, star topologies have even ventured into the realm of long-range communication, utilizing technologies like 2G/GSM to shine their light over wider areas \cite{CVZZ16}.
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% While Star-based WSNs shine in terms of simplicity and ease of deployment, they face limitations. Scaling them up for wider coverage can be challenging \cite{Boukerche2018Connectivity}. Additionally, research by Shrestha et al. suggests that Mesh networks, with their interconnected nodes and redundant data paths, may offer superior reliability, especially when individual nodes fail \cite{shrestha_performance_2007}.
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% Therefore, choosing the right WSN topology for environmental monitoring requires careful consideration. Simplicity and ease of deployment offered by Star networks might be ideal for smaller, controlled environments \cite{Alippi2011A}. However, for expansive or critical monitoring applications, the enhanced reliability of Mesh networks may be the brighter star to follow \cite{Han2011Reliable}.
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\newpage
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@ -1,112 +1,67 @@
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@article{lazarescu_design_2013,
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title = {Design of a {WSN} Platform for Long-Term Environmental Monitoring for {IoT} Applications},
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volume = {3},
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issn = {2156-3357, 2156-3365},
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url = {http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/6472115/},
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doi = {10.1109/JETCAS.2013.2243032},
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abstract = {The Internet of Things ({IoT}) provides a virtual view, via the Internet Protocol, to a huge variety of real life objects, ranging from a car, to a teacup, to a building, to trees in a forest. Its appeal is the ubiquitous generalized access to the status and location of any “thing” we may be interested in.},
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pages = {45--54},
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number = {1},
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journaltitle = {{IEEE} Journal on Emerging and Selected Topics in Circuits and Systems},
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shortjournal = {{IEEE} J. Emerg. Sel. Topics Circuits Syst.},
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author = {Lazarescu, Mihai T.},
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urldate = {2024-02-06},
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date = {2013-03},
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@thesis{frey_localized_2007,
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title = {Localized Minimum Spanning Tree Based Multicast Routing with Energy-Efficient Guaranteed Delivery in Ad Hoc and Sensor Networks},
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url = {https://inria.hal.science/inria-00153816},
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abstract = {We present a minimum spanning tree based energy aware multicast protocol ({MSTEAM}), which is a localized geographic multicast routing scheme designed for ad hoc and sensor networks. It uses locally-built minimum spanning trees ({MST}) as an efficient approximation of the optimal multicasting backbone. Using a {MST} is highly relevant in the context of dynamic wireless networks since its computation has a low time complexity (O(n log n)). Moreover, our protocol is fully localized and requires nodes to gather information only on 1-hop neighbors, which is common assumption in existing work. In {MSTEAM}, a message split occurs when the {MST} over the current node and the set of destinations has multiple edges originated at the current node. Destinations spanned by each of these edges are grouped together, and for each of these subsets the best neighbor is selected as the next hop. This selection is based on a cost over progress metric, where the progress is approximated by subtracting the weight of the {MST} over a given neighbor and the subset of destinations to the weight of the {MST} over the current node and the subset of destinations. Since such greedy localized scheme may lead the message to a void area (i.e., there is no neighbor providing positive progress toward the destinations), we also propose a completely new multicast generalization of the well-know face recovery mechanism. We provide a theoretical analysis proving that {MSTEAM} is loop-free and always achieves delivery of the multicast message, as long as a path exists between the source node and the destinations. Our experimental results demonstrate that {MSTEAM} is highly energy-efficient, outperforms the best existing localized multicast scheme and is almost as efficient as a centralized scheme in high densities.},
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institution = {{INRIA}},
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type = {report},
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author = {Frey, Hannes and Ingelrest, François and Simplot-Ryl, David},
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urldate = {2024-02-09},
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date = {2007},
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langid = {english},
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}
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@article{shah_iot-enabled_2020,
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title = {{IoT}-enabled Low Power Environment Monitoring System for prediction of {PM}2.5},
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volume = {67},
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issn = {1574-1192},
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url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1574119220300560},
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doi = {10.1016/j.pmcj.2020.101175},
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abstract = {Air pollution is a major concern worldwide due to its significant impacts on the global environment and human health. The conventional instruments used by the air quality monitoring stations are costly, bulkier, time-consuming, and power-hungry. Furthermore, due to limited data availability and non-scalability, these stations cannot provide high spatial and temporal resolution in real-time. Although energy-efficient, wireless sensor network with the high spatio-temporal resolution is one of the potential solutions, real-time remote monitoring of all significant air quality parameters with low power consumption is challenging. To address this challenge, we propose internet of things-enabled low power environment monitoring system for real-time monitoring of ten significant air quality parameters. Moreover, the proposed system enables remote monitoring and storage of data for future analysis. Unlike earlier research work, further expansion of the proposed system is easily possible, as the proposed Wireless Sensor Node ({WSN}) can interface a higher number of sensors with the same number of interfacing pins. We did an in-depth analysis through calibration, experiments, and deployment which confirms the power efficiency, flexibility, reliability and accuracy of the proposed system. Results illustrate the low power consumption of 25.67mW, data transmission reliability of 97.4\%, and battery life of approximately 31 months for a sampling time of 60 min. The study of the correlation between Particulate Matter 2.5 ({PM}2.5) and other pollutants is performed using Central Pollution Control Board data of 41 months. The initial study related to correlation is performed for the future work of developing a prediction model of {PM}2.5 using highly correlated pollutants. The future approach for developing a prediction model in the form of analytical equations with the help of artificial neural network is demonstrated. This approach can be implemented using the proposed {WSN} or low-cost processing tool for evaluating {PM}2.5 from precursor gases. Therefore, this approach can be one of the promising approaches in the future for monitoring {PM}2.5 without power-hungry gas sensors and bulkier analyzers.},
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pages = {101175},
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journaltitle = {Pervasive and Mobile Computing},
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shortjournal = {Pervasive and Mobile Computing},
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author = {Shah, Jalpa and Mishra, Biswajit},
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urldate = {2024-02-06},
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date = {2020-09-01},
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keywords = {Artificial Neural Network, Environment monitoring, Internet of Things, {PM}2.5, Wireless Sensor Network},
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@article{lin_cmstr_2023,
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title = {{CMSTR}: A Constrained Minimum Spanning Tree Based Routing Protocol for Wireless Sensor Networks},
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volume = {146},
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issn = {1570-8705},
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url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S157087052300080X},
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doi = {10.1016/j.adhoc.2023.103160},
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shorttitle = {{CMSTR}},
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abstract = {How to extend the network lifetime with given limited energy budget is always one of the main concerns in Wireless Sensor Networks ({WSNs}). However, imbalanced energy consumption and overlong intra-cluster communication paths are prevalent in the hierarchical routing protocols, which shortens the network lifetime inevitably. To this end, an energy-efficient routing Protocol based on Constrained Minimum Spanning Tree ({CMSTR}) is proposed in this paper. To be specific, a new multichain routing scheme to balance the energy consumption for intra-cluster communications is presented. Based on the multichain routing scheme, the problem of establishing intra-cluster routing is transformed into a shortest Hamiltonian path problem on the basis of a graph-theoretic analysis model, which is solved through a Constrained Minimum Spanning Tree ({CMST}) algorithm proposed in this paper, with the aim to obtain the initial path for intra-cluster communications. In order to shorten the initial path length to obtain higher energy-efficient chain routes, a Neighbor Node Replacement ({NNR}) algorithm and a Link Intersection Detection and Elimination ({LIDE}) algorithm are proposed, in which the problem of potential long links and intersections is to be effectively alleviated. With shorter chain routes, unnecessary intra-cluster communication energy depletion can be reduced accordingly. In order to evaluate the performance of {CMSTR}, extensive simulation experiments are conducted. The results show that {CMSTR} can greatly prolong the network lifetime with regard to the metrics of {FND} and {HND}. To be specific, compared with {LEACH}, R-{LEACH}, and {DCMSTR}, the value of {FND} increased by 800\%, 540\% and 57\%, that of {HND} increased by 322\%, 286\% and 22\%, and overall network lifetime ({AND}) increased by 29\%, 10\% and 5\%, respectively. Besides, {CMSTR} has a stable and lowest packet loss percentage (0.4\%). In summary, {CMSTR} has excellent performance in terms of energy efficiency and network stability.},
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pages = {103160},
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journaltitle = {Ad Hoc Networks},
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shortjournal = {Ad Hoc Networks},
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author = {Lin, Deyu and Lin, Zihao and Kong, Linghe and Guan, Yong Liang},
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urldate = {2024-02-09},
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date = {2023-07-01},
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keywords = {Energy efficient, Long link and intersection elimination, Network lifetime, Shortest hamiltonian path, Wireless sensor networks ({WSNs})},
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}
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@article{boan_radio_2007,
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title = {Radio Experiments With Fire},
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volume = {6},
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issn = {1548-5757},
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url = {https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/4298084},
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doi = {10.1109/LAWP.2007.902809},
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abstract = {Radio communication has become an important tool to aid in combatting wildfire. In this letter, we consider the effect of fire upon radio propagation. Results are presented of broadband radio propagation measurements involving three small-scale fire experiments. Measurements reveal that particular frequency bands are affected by fire, being attenuated when fire is present. Ionization, present in the flames, is identified as the major cause of attenuation on radio propagation.},
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pages = {411--414},
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journaltitle = {{IEEE} Antennas and Wireless Propagation Letters},
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author = {Boan, Jonathan},
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urldate = {2024-02-06},
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date = {2007},
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note = {Conference Name: {IEEE} Antennas and Wireless Propagation Letters},
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keywords = {Attenuation, Australia, Bushfire, Combustion, Degradation, Electrons, fire, Fires, forest, Ionization, Radar scattering, Radio communication, radio propagation, Radio propagation, wildfire},
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@ARTICLE{4492767,
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author={Khan, Maleq and Pandurangan, Gopal and Anil Kumar, V.S.},
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journal={IEEE Transactions on Parallel and Distributed Systems},
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title={Distributed Algorithms for Constructing Approximate Minimum Spanning Trees in Wireless Sensor Networks},
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year={2009},
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volume={20},
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number={1},
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pages={124-139},
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keywords={Distributed algorithms;Wireless sensor networks;Energy efficiency;Algorithm design and analysis;Approximation algorithms;Nearest neighbor searches;Buildings;Communication networks;Routing;Distributed Algorthms;Minimum Spanning Tree;Sensor networks;Approximation Algorithms;Probabilistic Analysis;Distributed Algorthms;Minimum Spanning Tree;Sensor networks;Approximation Algorithms;Probabilistic Analysis},
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doi={10.1109/TPDS.2008.57}}
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@book{cormen_introduction_2009,
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title = {Introduction to Algorithms, third edition},
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isbn = {978-0-262-03384-8},
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abstract = {The latest edition of the essential text and professional reference, with substantial new material on such topics as {vEB} trees, multithreaded algorithms, dynamic programming, and edge-based flow.Some books on algorithms are rigorous but incomplete; others cover masses of material but lack rigor. Introduction to Algorithms uniquely combines rigor and comprehensiveness. The book covers a broad range of algorithms in depth, yet makes their design and analysis accessible to all levels of readers. Each chapter is relatively self-contained and can be used as a unit of study. The algorithms are described in English and in a pseudocode designed to be readable by anyone who has done a little programming. The explanations have been kept elementary without sacrificing depth of coverage or mathematical rigor.The first edition became a widely used text in universities worldwide as well as the standard reference for professionals. The second edition featured new chapters on the role of algorithms, probabilistic analysis and randomized algorithms, and linear programming. The third edition has been revised and updated throughout. It includes two completely new chapters, on van Emde Boas trees and multithreaded algorithms, substantial additions to the chapter on recurrence (now called “Divide-and-Conquer”), and an appendix on matrices. It features improved treatment of dynamic programming and greedy algorithms and a new notion of edge-based flow in the material on flow networks. Many exercises and problems have been added for this edition. The international paperback edition is no longer available; the hardcover is available worldwide.},
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pagetotal = {1314},
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publisher = {{MIT} Press},
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author = {Cormen, Thomas H. and Leiserson, Charles E. and Rivest, Ronald L. and Stein, Clifford},
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date = {2009-07-31},
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langid = {english},
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keywords = {Computers / Programming / Algorithms, Computers / Reference},
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}
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@article{hemanand_enabling_2021,
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title = {Enabling Sustainable Energy for Smart Environment Using 5G Wireless Communication and Internet of Things},
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volume = {28},
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issn = {1558-0687},
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url = {https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9690149},
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doi = {10.1109/MWC.013.2100158},
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abstract = {Energy production, management, distribution, and effective consumption have become an uphill challenge, especially digital disruption and tech-nological advancements. Most of the technology enablers and devices demand continuous energy supply for uninterrupted operation. Effective ener-gy management is essential to ensure that optimal energy is distributed across the intended devices and not wasted. Hence, the need for sustainable energy in power distribution and management is magnified. This work focuses on developing a robust sustainable energy distribution approach to distribute generated energy across needy devic-es effectively. This approach leverages technol-ogy enablers' services like the Internet of Things ({IoT}) to sense the energy demand of individual devices and 5G wireless communication for faster communication of {IoT} sensors with devices and to ensure sustained energy availability for them. The existing Glow worm Swarm Optimization approach is applied across {IoT} sensors to detect the devices in need of energy and distribute optimal energy on a need basis to accomplish smart, sustainable energy management. The approach's performance is determined in terms of optimal energy distribution based on energy demand and supply and is reported.},
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pages = {56--61},
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number = {6},
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journaltitle = {{IEEE} Wireless Communications},
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author = {Hemanand, D and Jayalakshmi, D. S. and Ghosh, Uttam and Balasundaram, A. and Vijayakumar, Pandi and Sharma, Pradip Kumar},
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urldate = {2024-01-31},
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date = {2021-12},
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note = {Conference Name: {IEEE} Wireless Communications},
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keywords = {5G mobile communication, Internet of Things, Particle swarm optimization, Performance evaluation, Power distribution, Production management, Smart devices, Sustainable development, Wireless communication},
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}
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@inproceedings{shrestha_performance_2007,
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title = {A Performance Comparison of Different Topologies for Wireless Sensor Networks},
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url = {https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/4227822},
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doi = {10.1109/THS.2007.370059},
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abstract = {Presently, star, mesh, tree, and clustered hierarchical architecture have emerged as the choice topologies for wireless sensor networks ({WSN}). Each topology has its own pros and cons under the specific working environment constraints. Consequently, current research depicts customized domain-specific ad hoc network topologies for efficient utilization of the constrained sensor resources. In this paper, we compare the various {WSN} topologies using performance criteria such as reliability, energy-efficiency, network life, scalability, self-organizing capability, data latency, etc. We focus on the reliability comparison of different topologies through a quantitative study. And we present a qualitative discussion on other performance criteria. Our study will provide useful insights for the {WSN} designers in choosing the appropriate topology and associated design parameters. We illustrate our observations via case studies.},
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eventtitle = {2007 {IEEE} Conference on Technologies for Homeland Security},
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pages = {280--285},
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booktitle = {2007 {IEEE} Conference on Technologies for Homeland Security},
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||||
author = {Shrestha, Akhilesh and Xing, Liudong},
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urldate = {2024-01-31},
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date = {2007-05},
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keywords = {Base stations, Circuit topology, Delay, Energy efficiency, Measurement, Network topology, Routing protocols, Scalability, Telecommunication network reliability, Wireless sensor networks},
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}
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@article{Alippi2011A,
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title={A Robust, Adaptive, Solar-Powered WSN Framework for Aquatic Environmental Monitoring},
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author={C. Alippi and R. Camplani and C. Galperti and M. Roveri},
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journal={IEEE Sensors Journal},
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year={2011},
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volume={11},
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pages={45-55},
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doi={10.1109/JSEN.2010.2051539}
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}
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@article{Han2011Reliable,
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title={Reliable and Real-Time Communication in Industrial Wireless Mesh Networks},
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author={Song Han and Xiuming Zhu and A. Mok and Deji Chen and M. Nixon},
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||||
journal={2011 17th IEEE Real-Time and Embedded Technology and Applications Symposium},
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doi={10.1109/RTAS.2011.9}
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}
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@article{Boukerche2018Connectivity,
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journal={Ad Hoc Networks},
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year={2018},
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volume={80},
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pages={54-69},
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doi={10.1016/j.adhoc.2018.07.003}
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}
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|
||||
@ARTICLE{CVZZ16, author={M. Centenaro and L. Vangelista and A. Zanella and M. Zorzi}, journal={IEEE Wireless Communications}, title={{Long-Range Communications in Unlicensed Bands: the Rising Stars in the IoT and Smart City Scenarios}}, year={2016}, volume={23}, keywords={Internet of Things;Smart Cities;Low-Power Wide Area Network (LPWAN);LoRa; SIGFOX;Ingenu;Cellular IoT}, month={October}
|
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@article{kruskal_shortest_1956,
|
||||
title = {On the Shortest Spanning Subtree of a Graph and the Traveling Salesman Problem},
|
||||
volume = {7},
|
||||
issn = {0002-9939},
|
||||
url = {https://www.jstor.org/stable/2033241},
|
||||
doi = {10.2307/2033241},
|
||||
pages = {48--50},
|
||||
number = {1},
|
||||
journaltitle = {Proceedings of the American Mathematical Society},
|
||||
author = {Kruskal, Joseph B.},
|
||||
urldate = {2024-02-09},
|
||||
date = {1956},
|
||||
note = {Publisher: American Mathematical Society},
|
||||
}
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Reference in New Issue